College

REFERENCE BOOK

4:21:00 PM


LINGUISTICS
Edited by Anne E. Baker and Kees Hengeveld
Published by WILEY-BLACKWELL


I have read a book and I want to share about it.
The title of that book is LINGUISTICS by Anne E. Baker with her friend.
When I was searching a reference book for Introduction to Linguistics Course, I found this book from Region Library (PUSWIL) Soeman HS Pekanbaru.
LINGUISTICS is a book that learn about the science of language, grammar in generally. On this book, we also can learn about:
·         What is language?
·         The kind of Linguistics like Phonology, Syntax and others.

Linguistics not only deal with the form of sentences, but also describe other aspects of language. Every language is used for general communication. Using a natural language, human can in principle communicate with each other about anything in their world.
I think, LINGUISTICS could give many advantages and can help everyone who is work relates in language.

Then for myself, an undergraduate student at Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, English Education Department, this book help me on teaching and learning process in Introduction to Linguistics Course. But this book still less complete to support on program Intro to Ling course and this book just only available 5 books in the library.

College

A PART OF PURE LINGUISTICS: PHONETICS

5:25:00 PM


PHONETICS

Phonetics is the study of sounds. To understand the mechanics of human languages one has to understand the physiology of the human body. Letters represent sounds in a rather intricate way. This has advantages and disadvantages. To represent sounds by letters in an accurate and uniform way the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was created. Since the IPA is an international standard, it is vital that one understands how it works (and can read or write using it). The complete set of symbols is rather complex.
Phonetics is the study of actual sounds of human languages, their production and their perception. It is relevant to linguistics for the simple reason that the sounds are the primary physical manifestation of language.
Traditionally, sounds are classified into consonants and vowels. Consonants are sounds that are produced with a major obstruction in the mouth cavity. Vowels are sounds that are produced without such obstruction. However, diphthongs also on the classification of sounds.
Vowel is a speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth, teeth, etc.
Example: ɑ, i, u, e, o.
·        [ɪ] » /i/
ex: English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ or Business /ˈbɪznəs/
·        [ɑ] » /a/
ex: Father /ˈfɑːðə/
·        [u] » /ʊ/  short /oo/
ex: Look /lʊk/ or Put /pʊt/
·      [e] » /ɛ/ 
ex: Bed /bɛd/ or Head /hɛd/
·        [o] » /ɒ/ , shorter /ɔ:/ or /o/
ex: Clock /klɒk/

Vowel is divided into two: familiar and unfamiliar vowel.
a)     Familiar vowels:  [ɑ] >> aunt, [ɒ] >> hot, [e] >> breakfast
b)     Unfamiliar vowels: 
[æ]  » /a/ ex:                              Cat /kæt/
                                            Bag /bæɡ/
[ə]  » schwa /er/or /u/ ex:       Woman /ˈwʊmən/
[ɪː]  » /ee/ ex:                             Sea /siː/
        Bee /biː/
        Receive /rɪˈsiːv/
[uː] »  long /oo/ ex:                 Too /tuː/
       Blue /bluː/
[ɔː]  »  /or/   ex:                        Or /ɔː/
       Board /bɔːd/

Consonant is a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air being breathed out through the mouth. In other word, consonant can be defined that a letter of the alphabet that represents the consonant sound. Here are some examples of consonant:  [b], [c], [d], [f], [v], [p], [m], [n], [θ], [s], [ð], [ʃ], [ʒ].
Factors relevant for the classification of consonants include the manner of articulation, the place of articulation, and voicing. 

a. The places of articulation / Menurut titik artikulasi

          Places of articulation are the places where speech sounds produced. These places are basically comes from the organ of speech of human being. The places of articulation are as follows:
1) Bilabial   is a speech sound made by both upper and lower lip. These speech sounds are represented by the symbol [p], [b], [m].  
Examples >> >>                 Pet, Bat, Mat
Pen, Band, Men
Pie, Buy, My
Bilabial, yaitu bunyi dengan titik artikulasi pada bibir. Bilabial terbagi dua, bilabial, yaitu bunyi yang diartikulasikan oleh dua bibir (p, b, m).

2) Labio-dental  is a speech sound formed with upper teeth and lower lip. The speech sound can be represented by the symbol [f]and [v]. 
Example>>>>         Fan, Van
                                                Fat, Vate
                                                Safe, Save
Labio-dental, yaitu bunyi antara bibir bawah dengan gigi atas (f, v).

3) Dental  is a speech sound produced with tongue against upper front teeth. The speech sound can be represented by the symbol [θ] and [ð]. 
Example:                  [θ] ->> Teeth, Three, Thursday, Theory
                                    [ð] ->> The, There, Then, Thus, Therefore
Dental, yaitu bunyi yang diartikulasikan oleh ujung lidah dengan gigi depan (θ, δ).

4) Alveolar  is a speech sound formed with tongue touching behind the upper front teeth. The speech sound can be represented by the symbol [t], [d], [n], [s], [z].
Example:      Tie, Die, Nut, See, Zoo
Top, Dip, Nice, Sit, Zebra
Alveolar, yaitu bunyi yang diartikulasikan oleh ujung lidah dengan gusi (t, d, n, s, z).

5) Palatal  is a speech sound produced with the tounge and the palate. The speech sound can be represented by the symbol [ʃ] “sh” and [tʃ] “ch”. 
Example:      [ ʃ ] : shoe, brush, wash, wish, dish, shall
                       [tʃ] : church, chicken, teacher, cheat, chat
 Palatal/ Palato-alveolar, yaitu bunyi yang diartikulasikan oleh badan lidah dengan langit-langit mulut (t∫,dЗ).

6) Velar  is a speech sound produced with the back of the tongue againts the velum (soft palate). The speech sound can be represented by the symbol [k], [ŋ] and [g].
Example:      [k] : kid, kill, kick, car, cold, can, cook
[g] : bag, mug, good, goose, glass
Velar, yaitu bunyi yang diartikulasikan oleh bagian belakang lidah dengan langit-langit bagian belakang (k, g, ŋ).

7) Glottal  is a speech sound produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. This speech sound can be represented by the symbol [h]. Example: have, has, house, whom, whose, who.
Glottal, yaitu bunyi yang dihasilkan di glottis.


b. The manner of articulation // Menurut cara artikulasi
           Manner of articulation are the way how to produce sounds. The manners of articulation are as follow:
1) Stop  is the sounds produced by some form of stopping the air stream then releasing it suddenly. These sounds can be represented by the symbol [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]. Examples: put, but, toy, down, key, go, buy, good.
2) Fricative  is the sounds produced by blocking the air stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. These sounds can be represented by the symbol [f], [v], [θ], [s], [z], [ð], [ʃ], [ʒ]. Examples: fit, very, theatre, seem, zip, shock, treasure.
Fricative, bunyi dibentuk dengan menyempitkan rongga udara sehingga keluarnya udara menyebabkan suara.

3) Afficate  is the sound made by stopping the air stream then followed immediately by fricative. In other word, it is combination of “stop” and “fricative”. These sounds can be presented by the symbol [t∫] ‘ch’ and [dʒ] ‘j’, example: cheap, jeep, chair, jar.
 Affricate, yaitu bunyi yang menyerupai plosive tetapi pemisahan organ-organ artikulator dilakukan tidak terlalu cepat (t∫,dЗ).

4) Nasal  is the sounds produced by sending the stream of air through the nose. These sounds can be represented by the symbol [m], [n], [ŋ]. Example: sum, sun, sung.
Nasal, mulut tertutup sepenuhnya, langit-langit bagian belakang tetap rendah sehingga udara secara bebas melewati rongga (m, n, ŋ).

5) Liquid  is the sounds produced when the tongue touches the middle part of the alveolar ridge. These sounds can be symbolized with [l] and [r],  when you pronounce the symbol [r], your tongue tip will raise and curl back near the alveolar ridge, examples: let, red, lead, read.

References:
Ø  Companion to English Linguistics.pdf
Ø  ling-intro.pdf  // Introduction to Linguistics by Marcus Kracht Department of Linguistics, UCLA 3125 Campbell Hall 450 Hilgard Avenue Los Angeles, CA 90095–1543 kracht@humnet.ucla.edu
Ø  A coursebook of Pronunciation by M. Fadhly Farhy Abbas, M.Pd

Others contact:         twitter.com/adegustyya22
                                      instagram.com/adegustya




College

LING: INTRO TO LINGUISTICS

7:26:00 AM

Do you know about LINGUISTICS????


Hmm jika kamu mendengar kata LINGUISTICS, apa yang terpikir olehmu terlebih dahulu?? Sesuatu yang menakutkan?? Oh nooo its scary course??? Huuuuft I don’t like it. Hmm maybe something like that, right??
Tapi kamu tidak akan tahu bagaimana suatu hal sebelum kamu mengenalnya terlebih dahulu. Akan jauh lebih menyenangkan, akan jauh lebih mengasikkan jika hal itu dapat menarik hatimu untuk lebih giat lagi dalam belajar.
So, you have to know about LINGUISTICS!!!!

What is Linguistics??
I have 3 definitions of Linguistics, are:
      Linguistics is the science of language. To do this, we will trace a parallel in the individual human being from the time of the birth to the stage of complete mastery of the language. That is, the complete language acquisition process in its various stages. (according of book “A linguistic Primer for Malaysians” by Loga Mahesan Baskaran, 2005 published by University of Malaya Press).
      Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Language is essential in order to function as a human being. To understand humans, we also need to understand the phenomenon of language. As Noam Chomsky, one of the most important linguists of the twentieth century, wrote in 1972:
“When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call ‘the human essence’, the distinctive qualities of the mind, that are, as far as we know, unique to man”.

In Linguistics, we usually begin by describing a language, or rather language. Also, in linguistics we not only deal with the form of sentences, but also describe other aspects of language. Every language is used for general communication. Using a natural language, human can in principle communicate with each other about anything in their world. (according of book “LINGUISTICS” edited by Anne E. Baker & Kees Hengeveld, 2012 published by Wiley-BLACKWELL).
The study of language is conducted within the field of Linguistics. Contrary to popular belief, linguists are not necessarily poligots-individuals fluent in many languages. Instead, their primary interest is the scientific study of language. Like a biologist studying the structure of cells, a linguists studies the structure of language. How speakers created meaning through combination of sounds, words and sentences that ultimately result in texts-extended stretches of language. Linguistics is multidisciplinary, specialists in many disciplines bring their own expertise to the study of language.
Linguistics are engaged in the scientific study of language, they approach language. (according of book “Introducing English Linguistics” by Charles F. Meyer, 2009 published by Cambridge University Press).

Linguistics is a study about language. In studying linguistics, there are two major categories, include:
·         Pure Linguistics
·         Applied Linguistics

   Pure Linguistics
      1.     Phonetic and Phonology
This level focuses on the smallest unit of structure in language, the phoneme. Linguistic rules at this level describe how sounds are pronounced in various context. For instance, there is a rule of voicing assimilation in English that stipulates that when a past tense marker is added to the stem of a verb, the last sound in the stem determines whether the marker is voiced or unvoiced (whether or not the vocal cords vibrate when the consonant is pronounced). Thus, even though the child uses the wrong past tense form, the past tense marker is pronounced as /t/ because the last sound in the stem, /k/, is unvoiced.
      This two primary linguistics discipline concerned with speech sounds-those sounds that are used by humans to communicate. Both area are mutually dependent. Phonetics describes the concrete, physical form of sounds (how they are produced, heard and how they can be described), while phonology is concerned with the function of sounds, that is with their status and inventory in any given language.

      2.     Morphology
The next level of structure is the morpheme, the smallest unit of meaning in language. Rules of morphology focus on how words ( and part of words) are structured. At the beginning of the sentence, the child uses the pronoun I  rather than Me because English has rules of case assignment-pronouns functioning as subject of a sentence take the subjective form (sometimes referred to as the nominative case) rather than the objective form( or accusative case). And because the number of the subject is singular, I is used rather than plural form  We.
Morphology comes from a Greek word meaning ‘shape’ or ‘form’ and is used in linguistics to denote the study of words, both with regard to their internal structure and their combination or formation to form new or larger units.

      3.     Syntax
The largest level of structure is the clause, which can be analyzed into what are called clause functions: subject, predicator, object, complement and adverbial.
At the level of syntax, there are many ruled stipulating how constituents within a clause are grouped. For instance, all language have constraints on how constituents should be ordered. Because, English is SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) language.
Syntax, together with inflectional morphology, belongs to what is in traditional terminology, ‘the grammar of language’.

       4.     Semantics
One reoccurring theme in this reader (for example, in the chapters on phonology, morphology and syntax) has been is the focus on internal structure (for example of words and sentences) in contrast to meaning (i.e. what a piece of language tells us about the world). Semantics covers that domain of meaning.
Meaning as a concept is initially more difficult to define than you might think. Because meaning is at the core of human communication, the study of semantics cuts across all of the other levels thus far discussed.
The study of semantics is typically focused on such topics as the meaning of individual words (lexical semantics) and the ability of words to refers to point in time or individuals in the external world.

      5.     Pragmatics
In human communication, much of what is expressed goes beyond simply conveying information to others. One limitation of semantics is that dimensions of meaning that are outside the content of linguistics sign are also outside the scope of description. Social and affective meaning are not covered by semantics (which focuses on conventional/conceptual meaning only), but virtually any real-life communicative situation contains signs which are used to express something about the speakers and their social relationships.
Pragmatics is concerned with how people use language within a context, in real-life situations. While semantics is concerned with words, phrases and sentences, the unit of analysis in pragmatics is an utterance made in a concrete communicative context. Pragmatics is concerned with how factors such as time, place and the social relationship between speaker and hearer affect the ways in which language is used to perform different functions.
       6.     Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis is one of the disciplines that deals with the study of language use and it therefore in part overlaps with pragmatics. But it is also about how sentences, the most complex units within the language system, are actually put to use and combined with each other, i.e. are used as utterances.  Most utterances we make do not come as isolated sentences, but as longer stretches of language use, i.e. as text and discourse. In fact, the term 'discourse' has come to be used to refer to all units of language use whatsoever (even discourse over longer stretches of time, such as a political or scientific discourse relating to one particular topic), and with that integrates many aspects of the situational and sociocultural context of utterances. By contrast, it is the notion of 'text' that puts the emphasis on the linguistic unit that is larger than a single sentence and therefore studies more of the context of an utterance.
Many elements in a language mark this textual cohesion, while others contribute to its overall coherence with regard to its context, especially the background knowledge on the part of the hearer or established by prior co-text. In particular, this concerns the appropriate "packaging" of our messages within a text, also known as information-structuring. While the lexical and grammatical devices a language has to offer to establish cohesion and coherence apply to spoken as well as written discourse, other principles of textual organization are only found in spoken, interactive discourse, their analysis is grounded in a separate discipline termed conversation analysis.

      Applied Linguistics
                  Applied Linguistics provides a strong understanding of concepts, current issues and research methods in the core areas of applied linguistics.
   Applied linguistics mean that:
    Education
    (teaching, learning, acquisition, assessment).
    Linguistics
( The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology  and the study of human speech,  language form,  language meaning , and  language in context)
    Sociology
    (the scientific study of human social behavior and  the study of society)
    Anthropology
(the scientific study of the origin and behavior of man, including the physical, social, and cultural development of societies and cultures).

    Psychology
      (the science of mind and behavior, and the application of such  knowledge of  various spheres of human activity, such as  education, health, occupational and employment services).
Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which mediates between the theory of language and the practice of language learning.
   There are many kinds of Applied Linguistics, include:
  Clinical Linguistics (analysis and treatment of language disorders).
 Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages (developing foreign language teaching methods).
  Educational Linguistics (the use of the mother tongue in school).
  Lexicography (theory and practice in organizing dictionaries;  methods and techniques for creating  dictionaries).
  Computational Linguistics (the use of computers in language analysis and use) . 
  Machine Translation ( computerized translation).
  ASR –Automatic Speech Recognition
  Language assessment (to measure student learning of languages, to determine  what a student knows  and/or can do and how well instruction is proceeding ).
  Forensic Linguistics (the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, experts, court, evidence, law, jurislinguistique).
  Data Mining – (the process of processing large volumes of data usually stored in a database and searching for patterns and relationships within that data. It is automatic extraction and processing of data).
  Language pedagogy  (theory of developing teaching methods).
  Psycholinguistics  (the study of the  psychological factors  that enable  humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce speech , relationship between language and human behavior).
  Internet linguistics (It studies new language styles and forms that have arisen under the influence of the Internet and Short Message Service [SMS]).
  Sociolinguistics (study of the link between language and society).
  Neurolinguistics (describes the application of linguistic theories to the classification and analysis of acquired disorders of language or speech in patients with brain damage).
  Language interpretation (facilitating of oral or sign language communication between users of different languages).
  Corpus linguistics (the study of language as expressed in samples (corpora) or "real world" text ; it is approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural language is governed or else relates to another language).
  Text Analysis ( written discourse).
 Language, culture, and pragmatics (cultural  aspects in language teaching in  intercultural communication).
  Language Control / Dialectology (study of linguistic  dialect, variations in language and is based primarily on geographic distribution ;  divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronic variation).

   References:
   Book “LINGUISTICS” edited by Anne E. Baker & Kees Hengeveld, 2012 published by Wiley-BLACKWELL
  Book “A linguistic Primer for Malaysians” by Loga Mahesan Baskaran, 2005 published by University of Malaya Press
   Book “Introducing English Linguistics” by Charles F. Meyer, 2009 published by Cambridge University Press)--pdf
   Companion to English Linguistics.pdf