College

A part of Pure Linguistics: Syntax

5:27:00 PM

Assalamualaikum wr.wb
Have a nice day, I would talk to all of you about part of pure linguistics. It’s SYNTAX. So, keep enjoy guys!!
Do you know about Syntax???


Syntax is the part of linguistics that studies sentence structure /// The study of the structure of phrases or sentences and the rules governing how words are combined to form phrases/sentences.

Jadi Syntax  adalah salah satu dari cabang ilmu linguistik yang mempelajari kaidah yang menentukan bagaimana kata membentuk frasa dan frasa membentuk kalimat.
Syntax is not about meaning! Sentences can have no sense and still be grammatically correct.
We put words into categories or logical groups, according to how they work within parts of speech , phrases, clauses or sentences.
These categories, traditionally called parts of speech are now more usually known as word classes.
1.       Parts of Speech
Parts of speech are labels for categories in which we usually place words. The traditional parts of speech including the two, these were:

• Open class – content words (kata-kata inti/pokok) – nouns, verbs, adjectives, interjections and adverbs.
• Closed class – function words (kata-kata fungsi/kegunaan) – determiners, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions.

2.       Phrase
Phrase is a group of two or more words that express a single idea but do not usually form a complete sentence. There are 5 main categories of phrases, are:

Type of Phrase
Information and examples
Noun  Phrase
A noun phrase consist of a noun and other related words (usually get determiners). It functions like a noun in a sentence.
Examples:
a nice red skirt, a glass, the girl with blue eyes
Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples:
The man in the room is our teacher.             (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice.           (As adverb)
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence.
Examples:
He is eating an orange
She has finished her assignment
Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence to a noun or pronoun.
Examples:
The girl with brown hair is writing a letter
She is a beautiful girl in the class
Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb)
Examples:
She reads this chapter novel loudly

3.       Clause

Clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause is either independent or dependent. There are two main categories of clauses, they are:

·         An independent clause (main clause) is a complete sentence. It contains the main subject and verb of a sentence.
Ex: Diana lives in japan

·         A dependent clause (subordinate clause) is not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause.
Ex: When my father arrived, I was cooking fried rice.

4.       Sentence
Sentence is the largest grammatical unit in language. Usually containing a verb and a predicate.
Simple sentence ialah kalimat yang terdiri dari satu independent clause
Example: I go to campus in this morning
Compound sentence ialah kalimat yang terdiri dari dua atau lebih dari satu independent clause
Example: Nabila and desi wake up at 5.00 am, and they cook fried rice together

References:
http://babelnet.sbg.ac.at/themepark/grammar/classes.html
http://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/~hana/teaching/2015wi-ling/06-Syntax.pdf
http://www.studyandexam.com/types-of-phrase.html
English Grammar third edition- Betty Schrampfer Azar

College

A Part of Pure Linguistics: Morphology

4:46:00 PM

Morphology is the study of word formation, of the structure of words.
Morphology is the study of word formation – how words are built up from smaller pieces.
When we do morphological analysis, then, we’re asking questions like, what pieces does this word have? What does each of them mean? How are they combined? 

Types of morphemes   
Morpheme            A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning we have – that is, the smallest piece of a word that contributes meaning to a word. 
Example               The word trainings has 3 morphemes in it: train-ing-s.

To break a word into morphemes, try starting at the beginning of the word and seeing how far into the word you need to go to find a sub-part of the word that has some meaning.

Morpheme is classified into two categories, are:
Free            A free morpheme is one that can stand on its own – that is, it’s an entire word.   
Examples à the, cat, run, pretty, trapezoid
Free morphemes may appear with other bound morphemes attached to them; crucially, though, they don’t need to have other morphemes on them.   

Bound        A bound morpheme cannot stand on its own, but rather must be attached to a free morpheme whenever you say it.    
Examples à re-, un-, -est, -er, -fer (see below)
Some morphemes are roots and others are affixes.
Root          The primary piece of meaning in a word, to which affixes can be added. In English, a root is often a word itself.    
Examples à cat, pretty, -fer
Affix          A morpheme which attaches to roots (or stems), changing their meaning in regular ways.
Examples à re-, un-, -est, -er, ing, -s
Affixes are generally either prefixes or suffixes. 
Prefix   An affix that goes before a root.  Examples: re-, un- (re-read, un-loved) 
Suffix   An affix that goes after a root.    Examples: -est, -er, -s (quick-est, quick-er, read-s, book-s)

Here is some of the evidence for the distinction between inflectional and derivational affixes (the book has more):
Inflectional Affixes
Derivational Affixes
All are suffixes
May be either suffixes or prefixes
Have a wide range of application. E.g. most English nouns can be made plural, with {PLU}
May have a wide or narrow range
All native to English (since Old English was spoken around 500-1000 AD)
Many were adopted from Latin, Greek, or other languages. (Though others, especially the suffixes, are native, including {ful}, {like}, {ly}, and {AG})

Inflectional Affixes
English has only eight inflectional affixes:
{PLU} = plural                                     Noun                  -s                     boys
{POSS} = possessive                            Noun                  -’s                    boy’s
{COMP} = comparative                        Adj                    -er                     older
{SUP} = superlative                             Adj                    -est                   oldest
{PRES} = present                                Verb                  -s                      walks
{PAST} past                                        Verb                 -ed                     walked
{PAST PART} = past participle             Verb                  -en                     driven
{PRES PART} = present participle        Verb                 -ing                    driving
Notice that, as noted above, even irregular forms can be represented morphologically using these morphemes.  Example  the irregular plural sheep is written as {sheep} + {PLU}, even though the typically form of {PLU} is not used here. Similarly, better = {good} + {COMP}; drove = {drive} + {PAST}.

Derivational Affixes
There are an indefinite number of derivational morphemes. For example, the following are some derivational suffixes:
{ize} attaches to a noun and turns it into a verb: rubberize
{ize} also attaches to an adjective and turns it into a verb: normalize
{ful} attaches to a noun and turns it into an adjective: playful, helpful
{ly} attaches to an adjective and turns it into an adverb: grandly, proudly
A different {ly} attaches to a noun and changes it into an adjective: manly, friendly
English also has derivational prefixes, such as:
{un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some kind of negation: unhappy, dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft.

References:
http://people.umass.edu/moiry/morphology.pdf
http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~packer/Courses/Psy598/Ling-Morphology.pdf


College

A part of Pure Linguistics: Phonology

5:06:00 PM

Phonology is Study of how sounds interact in various languages (phonetics Æconceptual representation) .
Phonology can be described as an aspect of language that deals with rules for the structure and sequencing of speech sounds. Every language has a wide variety of speech sounds (phonemes). 
For example in English, the ng sound, as in ring, will never appear at the beginning of a word.  Phonology rules also determine which sounds may be combined.
Consequently, the study of phonology requires us to take meaning into consideration, while phonetics does not. In this section we explore phonology and the basic unit of phonological analysis, the phoneme.

There are 2 kinds of Phonology:
Segmental phenomena „
Ø  Phonemic Inventory and Allophone
A phoneme is a unit of sound in a language that cannot be analysed into smaller linear units and that can distinguish one word from another. Phonemes are often presented surrounded by // in transcription (e.g. /p/ and /b/ in English pat, bat).
So /p/ and /b/ are two phonemes because they can distinguish between the words "pat" and "bat". /c/ is another, because it distinguishes the word "cat" from "pat" and "bat".
Allophones are any of the variants making up a single phoneme.
So, for example, you might pronounce the letter "T" differently in the two words "stand" and "tip". A common test to determine whether two phones are allophones or separate phonemes relies on finding minimal pairs: words that differ by only the phones in question.
For example, the words tip and dip illustrate that [t] and [d] are separate phonemes, /t/ and /d/, in English.

Ø  Sound-change rules and ordering ‰
Feature changing rules change the value of a component feature of a sound, for instance, from non-nasal to nasal or from short to long. The nasal pronunciation of the vowel of can is due, as we’ve seen, to the influence of the nasal consonant /n/ that comes immediately after it. In this case, the rule changes an oral (non-nasal) sound to a nasal one.
Segment deletion rules remove sound segments. For instance, in informal speech, a segment deletion rule removes the second of a pair of consonants at the end of one word when the next word begins with a consonant.

Supra-segmental phenomena „
Syllabification „
Prominence „
Tones „
Intonation

Phonological Features
Contrastive function: Each phoneme differs from others in at least one feature „
Descriptive function: Accurately describes phonetic nature of a sound (may include redundant, non-contrastive features)
Classificatory function: Explains and allows generalizations and common phonological processes

Fungsi phonology
1.    Untuk mengetahui perubahan bunyi suara pada suatu kata.
2.    Mempelajari cara kerja organ tubuh manusia terutama yang berhubungan dengan penggunaan bahasa.
3.    Mempelajari tentang proses pembentukan bunyi, penyampaian/ pengucapannya.

References:
Book Two for Phonology.pdf
Chapter4.pdf about phonology by Delahunty and Garvey

http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-difference-between-phoneme-allophone-46939

thanks to all of you have read my post about phonology, i am sorry if i have mistakes and give me comment to over content about this post